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Kappa Omicron Nu
FORUM
Laying the Foundation for Professional Competence in Family and Consumer Sciences:
A Constructivist Approach
Barbara A. Clauss
Indiana State University
Abstract
Constructivist approaches engage learners and help them develop the cognitive skills they need for professional employment. The case study assignment in a family and consumer sciences departmental core course is a constructivist approach that prepares students for complex tasks in advanced courses and career positions.
Introduction
The 21 st century workplace requires employees who have developed critical thinking, problem-solving, assessment, and communication skills and are able to use them in profession-specific settings (Brown, 1998; Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991). Undoubtedly, family and consumer sciences (FCS) professionals are among those who must apply these cognitive skills on a daily basis. Yet, the conventional educational approach, in which educators lecture while students passively listen, take notes, and remember facts long enough to pass multiple-choice exams (Brown, 1998; Murphy, n.d; Scheurman, 1998) does not emphasize the development of these skills nor their application in relevant settings (Gabler & Schroeder, 2003; Marlowe & Page, 2005). If their college or university experiences are fraught with the conventional educational approach, FCS graduates may enter their careers lacking these critical cognitive skills.
Although FCS students are accustomed to experiential learning in the laboratory courses, practicums, and internships in hospitals, social service agencies, design firms, schools, and retail businesses, such experiences may not be adequate preparation for the variety of workplace demands professionals face. Courses in higher education typically classified as lectures must foster development of cognitive skills. Instead of relying on lecture and note-taking, educators should formulate course work and learning environments that reflect the complexity and activity that is characteristic of the settings in which students will eventually apply knowledge and skills (Savery & Duffy, 1995). Brown (1998) proposed that educators use a constructivist approach to teaching and learning as an effective strategy for preparing graduates for their professions. This paper presents and defends a constructivist approach to teaching and learning in a core FCS course as a way to foster cognitive skills needed for effective professional functioning.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of learning (Lambert, Walker, Zimmerman, Cooper, Lambert, Gardner et al., 1995) that informs one’s teaching strategies, i.e., one’s approach to teaching and learning. It is based on the idea that effective learning occurs when students are actively involved in real-world situations (Marlowe & Page, 2005). Active involvement requires students to examine, question, reason, debate, create, and evaluate observations and ideas as they formulate their own understanding of the world (Jenkins, 1996) or build knowledge (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).
Learning tasks are centered on broad conceptual situations or problems for which there are no single, correct answers or solutions. However, implementing such learning tasks does not mean that “anything goes” (Scheurman, 1998). Students do not invent concepts, nor do they build ideas without a sound, articulated rationale; they work with ideas and materials to build their knowledge and experience base (“What is constructivism?,” n.d.).
Constructivist approaches acknowledge that students come to an educational setting with ideas and beliefs that may be supported, extended, confused, or contradicted by new knowledge (Brooks & Brooks, 1999; Lauretzen & Jaeger, 1997). Through interaction with others, students can reconcile new understandings with current knowledge (Gabler & Schroeder, 2003; Lambert et al., 1995). As a result, learning is a personalized experience for each individual (Jenkins, 1996).
Learning tasks involve guided reflection on new knowledge through a series of increasingly complex open questions, which helps students process systematically what they have learned. The structured activity can allow them to determine how the new knowledge has modified what they thought previously. In addition, student reflection guides the educator’s assessment of the process of student learning and informs planning for future activity (Gagnon & Collay, n.d.; Jenkins, 1996; Lambert et al., 1995; Scheurman, 1998).
Constructivist Approaches in Family and Consumer Sciences
Incorporating constructivist approaches in FCS lecture courses is intuitively appealing as well as professionally sound for two key reasons. Clearly, academic programs in FCS must prepare their graduates to enter the workforce. However, the breadth of knowledge, the dynamic nature of the discipline, and the creativity of applications make it impossible for graduates to move into careers with “all the answers.” Therefore, teaching them cognitive skills, such as critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving in addition to program-specific facts and techniques will equip graduates with the ability to manage a range of responsibilities and create strategies and solutions for each situation they encounter.
Furthermore, there is perhaps no other discipline in which students’ lived experiences are so influential on their learning. The essence of their day-to-day existence may be the subject matter of today’s lesson, this week’s unit, or this semester’s course. For example, the parent of a dietetics student may be diagnosed with Type II diabetes when the student is enrolled in a medical nutrition course, or an interior design student may be faced with finding housing that accommodates his child’s wheel chair.
On a more fundamental level, people deal with housing, apparel, food and nutrition, parenting, and interpersonal relationships every day. Students bring their experiences, and the beliefs engendered by the experiences, to bear on their professional perspective (Lambert et al., 1995). Employing constructivist approaches encourages students to confront their unproductive ideas, make mistakes in a supportive environment, reflect on the uniqueness of their experiences, and “change their minds” (Brooks & Brooks, 1999, p. 42) in the process of learning new insights.
A Constructivist Approach in the FCS Core Curriculum – an Overview
The opportunity to employ a constructivist approach arose when the undergraduate family and consumer sciences departmental core curriculum was revised and condensed. Students enrolled in FCS 109 Human Systems in Family and Consumer Sciences (Human Systems in FCS), the second course in the revised three-course sequence,1 are expected to complete the course in their second semester. The course is designed to function in two primary ways. First, it provides a context for (a) examining specific concepts in family and consumer sciences, (b) relating them to professional practice and personal life regardless of specialization, (c) applying human systems theory, (d) analyzing instances of specific concepts in various human systems across the life span, and (e) developing cognitive skills. Second, it provides a knowledge and experience base for the principal assignment in the senior-level integrated departmental and general education capstone course.
In the capstone course, students work collaboratively in inter-specialization teams to analyze and evaluate cases and formulate action plans to improve the well-being of the individuals and human systems portrayed. Having completed most of their major courses, the depth and breadth of their specialized professional knowledge and skills are brought to bear on the case analysis and evaluation process introduced in Human Systems in FCS. Students’ expanded knowledge and experience base enables them to observe, analyze, and solve relevant, simulated professional situations or problems, whether they involve an environmental design challenge from a local business, a state-level curriculum mandate, a student athlete’s dietary requirements, a marketing strategy for an apparel specialty shop during an economic downturn, or support for grandparents raising their grandchildren in the community. Not only do they apply the cognitive skills of critical thinking, problem solving, assessment, and communication, they gain insight into professional collaboration expected of them in their career positions, as well.
A Constructivist Approach in FCS 109 Human Systems in Family and Consumer Sciences
As implied above, the content of Human Systems in FCS is a combination of knowledge and cognitive skills. Although course theory and concepts are defined and steps in accomplishing cognitive skills are outlined, direct instruction through lecturing and note taking is inadequate preparation for students to apply theory and perform skills. A constructivist approach is essential to the curriculum.
Brooks and Brooks (1999) and Lambert et al. (1995) recommended organizing learning around primary concepts, or “big ideas.” They believed that students of any age need to see the complete picture before being able to make sense of its parts. Constructivist approaches that present concepts as wholes allow students to deal with the concepts in ways that the students can understand. Indeed, isolating concepts can oversimplify complex situations, leading to confusion for the students (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). When they grapple with the complexity of concepts, they maintain a holistic view of the situation. Certainly, that is how the students will encounter the situations as professionals.
In this course, “big ideas” are presented in observations of audio-visual documentary or fictional (motion picture) cases. The cases are chosen for their portrayals of human systems, key family and consumer sciences concepts, and concepts pertaining to particular stages of individual or human system development. The use of cases is one constructivist approach that is more specifically referred to as problem-based learning and is considered “one of the best exemplars of a constructivist learning environment” (Savery & Duffy, 1995, p. 31).
The situations portrayed in the cases are ill-structured and lacking details about the circumstances. Observers are forced to examine the situation closely, thereby developing skill in critical thinking. Students engaged in this approach become familiar with observation and analysis of a variety of situations, setting the stage for them to analyze more complex cases and complete the plans of action in the capstone course.
Problem-based learning is consistent with Brooks and Brooks’ (1999) recommendation to present problems or situations of emerging relevance to students. Granted, freshmen enrolled in Human Systems in FCS may not have the insight or experience to realize the significance of a case at the outset. Students do not need a level of awareness for a problem to have relevance for them; educators can facilitate the development of relevance by using constructivist teaching strategies (Brooks and Brooks, 1999). For example, when students view the documentary Who are the DeBolts? And Where Did They Get Nineteen Kids?, they observe human system issues stemming from the pre-adoption life of some children, housing and clothing issues pertaining to some of the children with disabilities, and the potential for nutrition issues for other children with disabilities. Although students may not have encountered such specific matters early in their major program course work, this is an opportunity to challenge students to think critically.
Students are required to analyze the individual and family circumstances and suggest a service that they would make available to the DeBolt family as a professional public service. One dietetics major recommended a nutrition education program for all members of the family. Her suggestion attended not only to the dietary needs of each family member according to age/stage of development, genetic make-up, and physical condition but also to the cultural factors influencing food preparation, consumption, and lifestyle. Equipping each family member with knowledge and skills unique to his or her own nutritional needs is consistent with the DeBolts’ goal to prepare each child for living independently as adults. The student’s rudimentary idea was not required to be developed further. Nevertheless, she was impelled to step outside the confines of her budding view of the career to anticipate complex and sometimes competing needs of actual individuals and families.
Constructivism recognizes that students’ knowledge and experiences have shaped their suppositions about the world. As students in the course observe the cases, they encounter cultures and situations that may be unfamiliar to them. They may only have stereotypes to rely on as perceptions of others. Because educators cannot know students’ prior experiences with concepts and they do not know the extent of cognitive work necessary for each student to grasp the essence of a concept and generalize it to several situations, it is important to adapt the curriculum to work with students’ suppositions as learning unfolds (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). This does not mean eliminating unfamiliar situations and challenging concepts. Educators can facilitate students in linking what is currently known to new ways of knowing.
For example, students observe deaf culture in the documentary Sound and Fury (Weisberg & Aronson, 2000). Reliance on stereotypes they may believe about deaf individuals can lead to misdirected or erroneous analyses of the cases. Through questioning in structured small group discussions, the human experience portrayed in the documentary is normalized and involves students in exploring new perspectives by taking another’s position. Students respond to such questions as “Imagine yourself as one of the people at the picnic who has never been able to hear. What makes you so proud of the deaf culture? If you were Heather’s mother, would you allow her to have the cochlear implant? Now step back into ‘yourself.’ Do you, a hearing person, believe Heather should have the cochlear implant? What affects the way you answered these questions?”
Discussion continues when the small groups are brought together and asked to share their perspectives with the rest of the class. Paraphrasing the students’ comments and extending their ideas with additional comments helps students communicate their views and process alternative viewpoints. This activity can also help educators learn where students stand in the thinking process so they can tailor additional questions to challenge students’ thinking (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).
The written component of each observation is a case analysis. Requiring students to search for and work with instances of course concepts in five case observations boosts their critical thinking skills while highlighting the extensive variability of experience according to context. Within each case, students grapple with concepts pertaining to the unique circumstances of the case as well as a stage of individual and/or human system development.
After viewing Who are the DeBolts? And Where Did They Get Nineteen Kids?, students are required to propose how the DeBolt family demonstrated “technology as a socio-technical system.” More specifically, students are instructed to “think of the complex ways family members worked together, using ideas and objects to create and produce something, and describe one of those ways, being sure to describe the process and product that were created.”
Some students have focused on a scene showing several of the children making cookies. Each child’s responsibilities depended on his or her physical ability. Other students have referred to a garden that was planted and maintained by a few of the older sons and their father, whose inspiration to participate was fueled by his sons’ dedication. Still others have commented on the vocal and instrumental music made by several family members on many occasions. The process of sharing an enjoyable activity resulted in an equally enjoyable product – the music. A few students have referred to the routine of the chores assigned to and completed by everyone in the household as the socio-technical system. They focused on how all family members participated in maintaining the household – no simple task, considering the variations in ages and abilities, as well as the sheer number of people involved.
Evaluation of the written assignment is an opportunity for the instructor to promote students’ reflection and encourage expansion of their perspectives. Feedback in the form of reactions to their statements and additional questions is written on their assignments during the grading process. For example, one student described Bob DeBolt, the father of the 19 children, as a typical dad. Though further elaboration was not required for the assignment, feedback asked the student to consider other views. “Maybe he was like your father, or seemed like most dads to you. What was typical about him? What might make him atypical or different than many dads?”
Finally, when graded papers are returned to students, some of the students’ insights are shared anonymously and new questions are posed for whole-class discussion. Keeping the dialogue open shows students that perspectives are subject to change with new information and insight.
By the end of the semester, many students achieve the primary course objective of analyzing cases for principles and characteristics of human systems, family and consumer sciences concepts, and lifespan development theory and concepts. However, there is much more to their accomplishment. Students learn to trust their intellectual judgment because they are supported in their cognitive development to understand unfamiliar, complex, and abstract concepts. They gain experience in using cognitive skills to identify profession-specific concerns in individuals and human systems. Moreover, they begin to realize that through interaction with others, they can gain a broader perspective. Every aspect of every assignment in a constructivist approach is an opportunity for learning.
Conclusion
When students are required to go beyond rote memorization to search for concepts and principles as they occur in daily life, the educator need not demand students’ acceptance of facts or tacit agreement with the meaning of the concepts and principles. Students discover and internalize meaning by looking for and finding it themselves. Using a constructivist approach in a freshman-level FCS course lays a foundation upon which students can increase their competence in the use of cognitive skills in complex, yet ill-defined situations as they plunge ever-deeper into their specializations.
Implications
FCS 109 Human Systems in Family and Consumer Sciences has been taught with a constructivist approach for six semesters. While there were a few students who completed the course much later in their programs of study than their freshman year and enrolled in or completed the capstone course, there is now a critical mass of students who have adhered to the timing and sequencing of the FCS programs of study. Formal assessment of students in the capstone course regarding their preparation for the case study assignment began in spring 2009. Formal assessments of students in this course, the capstone course, and of alumni one year after graduation are forthcoming. Assessments will focus on the effectiveness of the use of cases in FCS 109 Human Systems in Family and Consumer Sciences to prepare students for the capstone course and the effectiveness of Human Systems in FCS and the specific capstone case study assignment to prepare students for professional responsibilities.
References
American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences. (n.d.). “Body of Knowledge” for Family and Consumer Sciences. Retrieved May 11, 2006 from http://www.aafcs.org/about/knowledge.html
Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Brown, B. L. (1998). Applying constructivism in vocational and career education. Information Series No. 378. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment.
Gabler, I. C., & Schroeder, M. (2003). Constructivist methods for the secondary classroom. Boston: Pearson Education, Allyn and Bacon.
Gagnon, G. W., & Collay, M. (n.d.). Constructivist learning design. Retrieved May 5, 2006 from http://www.prainbow.com/cld/cldp.html
Harris, K. P., & Graham, S. (1994). Constructivism: Principles, paradigms, and integration. Journal of Special Education, 28, (3), p233, 15p.
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Kerka, S. (1997). Constructivism, workplace learning, and vocational education. ERIC Digest No. 181. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
Korty, J., Lockhart, W., McCann, D., & Winkler, H. (Producers), & Korty, J. (Director) (1977). Who are the DeBolts? And Where Did They Get Nineteen Kids? [Motion picture]. United States: American Broadcasting Company (ABC).
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Lauretzen, C., & Jaeger, M. (1997). Integrating learning through story: The narrative curriculum. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.
Marlowe, B. A., & Page, M. L. (2005). Creating and sustaining the constructivist classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Murphy, E. (n.d.). Characteristics of constructivist learning & teaching. Retrieved May 12, 2006 from http://www.cdli.ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle3.html
Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35, 31-38.
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thirteen.org. (n.d.). What is constructivism? Retrieved May 13, 2006 from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/
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Footnote
1 In their first semester, students majoring in all of the five program areas (human development and family studies, family and consumer sciences education, food and nutrition, interior design, and textiles, apparel and merchandising) complete the introductory core course. Among the topics are history of the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS) and the AAFCS Body of Knowledge (American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, n.d.). Contemporary issues, such as obesity, family violence, and the Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design are also presented to emphasize to all students the encompassing nature of the discipline of family and consumer sciences. ^back
Cheryl Mimbs-Johnson, University of Kentucky
Barbara A. Clauss, Indiana State University
Jacquelyn W. Jensen, Eastern Kentucky University
Maxine L. Rowley, Brigham Young University
Candace Fox
Mount Vernon Nazarene University
Jaesook L. Gilbert
Northern Kentucky University
Gale Smith
University of British Columbia
Dorothy I. Mitstifer, Kappa Omicron Nu
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